本章涵蓋 11 條寫作構成的基本原則（Rules 12-22），從整體設計、段落組織、語態選擇到句子結構，指導寫作者如何將想法清晰且有力地組織成文。
Rule 12: 選定合適的設計並貫徹到底#
每一種寫作都有其基本的結構設計。寫作要有效果，必須緊密追隨作者的思路——但不必按照思緒出現的先後順序。大多數情況下，規劃是寫作不可或缺的前奏。
重點： 構成的第一原則，就是預見即將成形的輪廓，並貫徹追求那個形狀。作者越清楚地感知到結構，成功的機會就越大。
何時可以不做設計#
在某些情況下，最好的設計就是沒有設計——例如情書（純粹的傾訴）或隨筆（自由的漫談）。但這些是例外，不是常態。
情感 vs. 設計#
有時衝動與情感比設計更具說服力。但即使是看似冒險奔放的寫作，細究之下往往都有一個隱藏的計畫：哥倫布不只是「揚帆出海」，他是向西航行。
Rule 13: 以段落為構成的基本單位#
段落是一個方便的單位，適用於所有文學形式。只要能保持連貫，段落可長可短。
段落分割的原則#
- 主題簡短時，可以用單一段落完成
- 通常一個主題需要分成多個話題，每個話題用一個段落處理
- 每個新段落的開頭，就是向讀者發出信號：主題的發展進入了新的階段
段落的開頭#
一般而言，以點出主題的句子或銜接過渡的句子來開頭：
- 有時只需一個詞或片語：again、therefore、for the same reason
- 在敘事和描寫中，段落有時以一句簡潔的總結性陳述開頭，再展開細節
段落的長度#
- 大段文字在視覺上令讀者望而生畏，適當分段有助於閱讀
- 但過多短段落接連出現也會令人分心，像是商業廣告或展示文案
- 適度與秩序感是分段的主要考量
技巧： 分段不僅是邏輯的需要，也是視覺的需要。即使在意義或邏輯發展上不必分段，過長的段落也值得拆開以降低閱讀壓力。
Rule 14: 使用主動語態#
主動語態通常比被動語態更直接、更有力、更簡潔。
對比示範#
| 被動語態 | 主動語態 |
|---|---|
| My first visit to Boston will always be remembered by me. | I shall always remember my first visit to Boston. |
| There were a great number of dead leaves lying on the ground. | Dead leaves covered the ground. |
| The reason he left college was that his health became impaired. | Failing health compelled him to leave college. |
| It was not long before she was very sorry that she had said what she had. | She soon repented her words. |
被動語態何時適用#
被動語態並非絕對禁止，在以下情況中是合理的：
- 當需要以受事者為主題時：The dramatists of the Restoration are little esteemed today.
- 當主動語態反而不自然時
補充： 將句子改為主動語態時，句子通常會變短。這印證了「簡潔是力量的副產品」（brevity is a by-product of vigor）。
Rule 15: 用肯定形式陳述#
做出明確的斷言。避免溫吞、無色彩、猶豫不決的語言。使用 not 作為否定或對比的手段，而非作為逃避。
對比示範#
| 否定形式 | 肯定形式 |
|---|---|
| He was not very often on time. | He usually came late. |
| She did not think that studying Latin was a sensible way to use one’s time. | She thought the study of Latin a waste of time. |
| not honest | dishonest |
| did not remember | forgot |
| did not pay any attention to | ignored |
否定與肯定的對立更具力量#
Not charity, but simple justice. Not that I loved Caesar less, but that I loved Rome more. Ask not what your country can do for you — ask what you can do for your country.
避免不必要的條件語氣#
保留 would、should、could、may、might、can 給真正涉及不確定性的情境。
| 猶豫不決 | 果斷明確 |
|---|---|
| Applicants can make a good impression by being neat and punctual. | Applicants will make a good impression if they are neat and punctual. |
| Plath may be ranked among those modern poets who died young. | Plath was one of those modern poets who died young. |
注意： 如果每一句都充滿不確定的助動詞，你的寫作將失去權威感。
Rule 16: 使用明確、具體的語言#
偏好具體勝於抽象，明確勝於模糊，特定勝於籠統。
對比示範#
| 抽象模糊 | 具體明確 |
|---|---|
| A period of unfavorable weather set in. | It rained every day for a week. |
| He showed satisfaction as he took possession of his well-earned reward. | He grinned as he pocketed the coin. |
偉大作家的秘密#
荷馬、但丁、莎士比亞之所以有力量，很大程度上是因為他們處理的是具體的細節，報導的是特定的事實。他們的文字能喚起畫面。
重點： 如果所有研究寫作的人在任何一點上有共識，那就是：激發並保持讀者注意力最可靠的方式，就是具體、明確、實在。
George Orwell 的示範#
Orwell 曾將《聖經》中的一段有力文字改寫為抽象的官僚語言，藉此展示當有力的寫作被抽掉活力後會變成什麼樣子：
- 抽象版：Objective consideration of contemporary phenomena compels the conclusion that success or failure in competitive activities exhibits no tendency to be commensurate with innate capacity…
- 原文（Ecclesiastes）：I returned, and saw under the sun, that the race is not to the swift, nor the battle to the strong…
Rule 17: 省略不必要的詞#
重點： 有力的寫作是簡潔的。一個句子不應有不必要的詞，一個段落不應有不必要的句子——正如一幅畫不應有不必要的線條，一台機器不應有不必要的零件。這不是要求所有句子都短，或避免一切細節，而是每個詞都要有作用。
常見冗詞對照表#
| 冗長 | 精簡 |
|---|---|
| the question as to whether | whether |
| there is no doubt but that | no doubt (doubtless) |
| used for fuel purposes | used for fuel |
| he is a man who | he |
| in a hasty manner | hastily |
| this is a subject that | this subject |
| the reason why is that | because |
The fact that 必須消滅#
The fact that 是一個特別令人衰弱的表達，應該從每一個出現的句子中刪除：
| 冗長 | 精簡 |
|---|---|
| owing to the fact that | since (because) |
| in spite of the fact that | though (although) |
| call your attention to the fact that | remind you (notify you) |
| I was unaware of the fact that | I was unaware that (did not know) |
| the fact that he had not succeeded | his failure |
Who is / which was 通常多餘#
- His cousin, who is a member of the same firm → His cousin, a member of the same firm
- Trafalgar, which was Nelson’s last battle → Trafalgar, Nelson’s last battle
Rule 18: 避免連續使用鬆散句#
鬆散句（loose sentence）是指由兩個子句組成、第二子句以連接詞或關係代名詞引入的句型。偶爾使用可以避免文風過於僵硬，但過多的鬆散句會使文章單調乏味。
反面教材#
The third concert of the subscription series was given last evening, and a large audience was in attendance. Mr. Edward Appleton was the soloist, and the Boston Symphony Orchestra furnished the instrumental music. The former showed himself to be an artist of the first rank, while the latter proved itself fully deserving of its high reputation…
這段文字不僅陳腐空洞，而且因為句子結構千篇一律的「主句 + and/while + 第二子句」，讀來如同機械般的單調。
正面教材：E. M. Forster#
I believe in aristocracy, though — if that is the right word, and if a democrat may use it. Not an aristocracy of power, based upon rank and influence, but an aristocracy of the sensitive, the considerate and the plucky.
技巧： 解決鬆散句過多的方法：將一些改為簡單句、用分號連接的兩子句、或使用三子句的複合句（鬆散或周期句皆可），選擇最能反映思想真實關係的形式。
Rule 19: 以相似形式表達對等概念#
平行結構（parallel construction）要求在內容和功能上相似的表達，在外在形式上也要相似。
經典範例：登山寶訓#
Blessed are the poor in spirit: for theirs is the kingdom of heaven. Blessed are they that mourn: for they shall be comforted. Blessed are the meek: for they shall inherit the earth.
常見錯誤#
| 破壞平行 | 維持平行 |
|---|---|
| Formerly, science was taught by the textbook method, while now the laboratory method is employed. | Formerly, science was taught by the textbook method; now it is taught by the laboratory method. |
| It was both a long ceremony and very tedious. | The ceremony was both long and tedious. |
| A time not for words but action. | A time not for words but for action. |
冠詞與介係詞的平行#
當冠詞或介係詞適用於系列中的所有成員時，要麼只在第一項前使用，要麼在每一項前都重複：
- the French, the Italians, the Spanish, and the Portuguese
- in spring, summer, or in winter → in spring, summer, or winter 或 in spring, in summer, or in winter
關聯連接詞的平行#
both…and、not…but、not only…but also、either…or、first…second…third 之後必須接相同的文法結構。
Rule 20: 將相關的詞放在一起#
句中詞語的位置是顯示其關係的主要手段。相關的詞和詞組應放在一起，不相關的應分開。
對比示範#
| 詞序混亂 | 詞序正確 |
|---|---|
| He noticed a large stain in the rug that was right in the center. | He noticed a large stain right in the center of the rug. |
| You can call your mother in London and tell her all about George’s taking you out to dinner for just two dollars. | For just two dollars you can call your mother in London and tell her all about George’s taking you out to dinner. |
主詞與動詞不應被長片語分隔#
將可以移到句首的片語或子句提前放置：
- Toni Morrison, in Beloved, writes about characters who have escaped from slavery but are haunted by its heritage.
- → In Beloved, Toni Morrison writes about characters who have escaped from slavery but are haunted by its heritage.
關係代名詞應緊跟其先行詞#
- He wrote three articles about his adventures in Spain, which were published in Harper’s Magazine.
- → He published three articles in Harper’s Magazine about his adventures in Spain.
修飾語的位置#
修飾語應盡量靠近它所修飾的詞：
| 易生歧義 | 清楚明確 |
|---|---|
| All the members were not present. | Not all the members were present. |
| She only found two mistakes. | She found only two mistakes. |
注意： 最後一個左欄例子中，詞序的混亂會讓意義迅速偏離。當詞語被錯誤並置時，讀者可能會理解為完全不同的意思。
Rule 21: 在摘要中保持同一時態#
- 戲劇摘要：使用現在式
- 詩歌、小說摘要：使用現在式（如果過去式更自然也可使用）
- 若摘要以現在式進行，先行事件用完成式表達；若以過去式進行，用過去完成式
間接引述與間接問句中的時態保持不變#
The Friar confesses that it was he who married…
在文學批評中避免淪為摘要#
- 摘要在筆記本、報紙等場景中有其功能
- 但在文學批評中，目標應是以證據支撐的有序討論，而非附帶偶爾評論的摘要
Rule 22: 將強調詞放在句末#
句子中最想突出的詞或詞組，其最佳位置通常是句末。
對比示範#
| 強調點不明 | 強調點在句末 |
|---|---|
| Humanity has hardly advanced in fortitude since that time, though it has advanced in many other ways. | Since that time, humanity has advanced in many ways, but it has hardly advanced in fortitude. |
| This steel is principally used for making razors, because of its hardness. | Because of its hardness, this steel is used principally for making razors. |
句首也是強調位置#
句中除主詞外的任何元素，放在句首都會獲得強調效果：
Deceit or treachery she could never forgive. Home is the sailor.
周期句的效果#
周期句（periodic sentence）將重點陳述放在最後，其力量來自於對主要論點的延遲揭示：
Four centuries ago, Christopher Columbus, one of the Italian mariners whom the decline of their own republics had put at the service of the world and of adventure, seeking for Spain a westward passage to the Indies to offset the achievement of Portuguese discoverers, lighted on America.
重點： 最重要的內容放在句末的原則，同樣適用於段落中句子的排列，以及文章中段落的排列。